The United States Of America

The Constitution And Democracy

Political Convention
Political Convention, a gathering of delegates to conduct business for a Political Party. National conventions are held during Presidential election years by political parties in the United States. Conventions are also held at state and local levels, and in many other nations.

Delegates may conduct internal party business, adopt a declaration of party principles, prepare for election campaigns, and nominate candidates for public office. Each of these tasks is performed at national party conventions in the United States, but some of them -- particularly the last -- are omitted elsewhere.

History
American conventions developed from attempts by parties to unify differing factions and from their desire to extend popular participation in the electoral process. The first organized method for nominations was the caucus, in which legislators with common views met to draw up a list of party candidates. Used at first in state legislatures, the system was quickly extended to Congress. By 1800, the procedure was established, as the Republican and Federalist members of Congress met to nominate Thomas JEFFERSON  and John ADAMS , respectively, for president. But if an area did not elect legislators of the party, it was unrepresented. To meet this objection, the "mixed Caucus" was instituted, in which legislators and delegates from unrepresented areas were combined. There remained objections to an elite body of legislators making important decisions for the entire party. Moreover, because the legislative caucus chose candidates for executive positions, the practice was seen as a violation of the principle of the separation of governmental branches. Eventually, the caucus lost its effectiveness.

The convention emerged as an alternative system early in the 19th century. Delegates were chosen at local party meetings, or "Primary," to attend county conventions. As transportation improved, state gatherings became feasible and were first instituted in relatively small states. The new system permitted wider mass participation, divorced the legislature from control of executive nominations, and facilitated party unity behind a single ticket.

The first national conventions were held in 1831, by the short-lived Anti-Masonic Party and by the National-Republican party. More important for historical development was the 1832 meeting of President Andrew JACKSON 's party, the Democratic-Republicans. The holding of a national convention was a manifestation of the Jacksonian belief in mass democracy. It was also used by Jackson to overcome opposition to his chosen political heir, Martin VAN BUREN , as the Vice Presidential  choice. The rules of this convention established many important precedents, including delegate apportionment on the basis of Electoral votes, the casting of votes by state delegations, and the necessity of a two-thirds vote for nomination. The Democratic Party retained the two-thirds rule until after the convention of 1936.
Most contemporary party practices were established before the Civil War, including the writing of a party platform (1840), the selection of a full ticket at the national conventions (1844), and the designation of a national committee to administer party affairs between national Elections (1848). Convention practices changed little until the 20th century, when the important innovation of the direct presidential primary was introduced.

National Convention Delegates
Historically, apportionment of delegates among the states was based on electoral votes, each state receiving one to three votes for each vote in the Electoral College. The basic formula has been modified, however, to give greater voice to those areas from which the party receives its greatest support.

The Democratic party instituted a significantly different apportionment system for its 1972 convention. The new formula aimed at giving more power to the states with large numbers of Democratic voters. The new formula allocated 53% of the seats on the basis of electoral votes, and the remainder on the basis of the average state Democratic vote in the last three presidential elections. Also, the members of the National Committee are automatic delegates. In both parties, the territories are given token representation. Each party chooses up to an equal number of nonvoting alternates.

The delegates from each state are chosen either in direct primary elections or through a series of local, county, and state conventions. Major changes in the process of selection were made in the Democratic party for the 1972 convention, following the recommendations of the special Committee on Party Structure and Delegate Selection. The changes provided for the selection of all delegates in the calendar year of a presidential election, the inclusion of representative numbers of women, young people, and ethnic minorities on delegations; the adoption of formal rules by all state parties; and the prohibition of the unit rule in voting. Under the latter procedure, all votes of a state are cast for the candidate preferred by a majority of the state's delegates. The new rules were not simultaneously adopted by the Republican party, although it has never permitted a formal unit rule.
In 1974 the Democrats adopted a charter to ensure participation in delegate selection by blacks, women, and young people, and proportional representation of candidate preferences.

Some Republicans also considered ways to broaden their party's base. The 1972 convention included bonus delegates for states giving majorities to Republican candidates for president, senator, governor, and the U.S. House Of Representatives but the same convention rejected a plan to give more voting strength to large states.

Another important change in convention representation has come about through state law. About half of the states chose their convention delegates by direct vote in 1972, and the delegates so chosen comprised about 60% of the total votes. Prior to this, the proportion of directly elected delegates was only about one third of the total. The changes reflected the widespread discontent with the nominating process that had become evident in 1968, particularly after the disruptive Democratic convention.

Convention Action
The basic arrangements for a U.S. national convention are made by the party's National Committee, which determines the site, apportions delegates among the states, tentatively chooses officers, and arranges accommodations. The party meeting typically opens on a midsummer Monday in the presidential election year, and continues for four days, but its committees begin work earlier. The major committees are Rules, Credentials, and Platform. In the Republican party, these consist of two delegates from each state. In the 1972 Democratic convention, the committees comprised 150 delegates, apportioned by size of state delegations, but with at least one from each state.

The decisions of the committees may influence the nomination of presidential candidates. The 1952 Republican nomination of Dwight EISENHOWER , for example, was critically dependent on the adoption of rules and the settlement of credentials contests in his favor. The declaration of party principles, or platform, often is the focus of intense disputes. Although platforms are often disparaged as built "to run on, not to stand on," they have considerable significance. Parties have openly divided over their declaration of principles, most notably in 1860, when the Democrats could not agree on the slavery issue. More recent party disputes have involved the civil rights position of the Republican party in 1964 and the Vietnam policy of the Democrats in 1968. Research indicates that platforms are relatively specific in their wording, and that they forecast much of the legislative program of the victorious party. However, the degree of difference between the programs of the two major parties, while observable, is not great.

The first two days of a convention are usually taken up with organization, speeches, settling rules and credentials contests, and adopting the platform. During this time, the candidates seek last-minute support, while the party uses the free coverage by the broadcast media to appeal to the voters. On the third day of the convention, candidates for the presidential nomination are presented. Traditionally, the nomination speech for a candidate was followed by a supposedly spontaneous demonstration on his behalf. But the national television audiences became bored with these outbursts, and both parties have placed strict limits on the procedure. For 1972, the Democrats limited nominations in most cases to candidates with support in at least three states.

Nominations fall into distinct patterns. The most common is the renomination of an incumbent president. Because of his national prestige and his power within the party, it is extremely difficult to defeat an incumbent. An exception was the decision of President Lyndon JOHNSON  not to seek renomination in 1968 in the face of strong party opposition. A similar pattern is the nomination of an apparent party leader without a significant contest at the convention. Nearly two thirds of the presidential nominations in the 20th century fall into this pattern. Most frequently, nominees are chosen in a single ballot. Less common patterns are a convention choice among major candidates, or the surprise selection of a relatively unknown dark horse after many ballots.

In vice presidential selections, there has not even been a contest in more than two thirds of the modern nominations. The choice of a running mate is usually prearranged in consultations between the new presidential candidate and other party leaders. An exception came in 1956, when the Democratic nominee, Adlai Stevenson, refused to name a preference, and permitted the convention to select Sen. Estes Kefauver after a spirited two-ballot contest. The relatively limited choice available to conventions since World War II is due to the greater influence of preconvention factors. Primary elections bind many delegates. Early campaigning exposes the presidential aspirants to the party long before the formal decision. Television coverage also publicizes the candidates more fully, while it makes it more difficult for party leaders to negotiate privately. Convention decisions are also strongly affected by public opinion polls, which indicate the popular favorites. Because delegates are eager to win the election, they usually select the person leading in the polls. The increasing power of the president and the importance of national issues also makes it difficult for conventions to choose inexperienced candidates unfamiliar with those issues.

For these reasons, it is unlikely that national conventions will again be the storied scene of deals made in smoke-filled rooms in which mediocre but "available" candidates are selected.

State Conventions
Party conventions are common among state parties. However, because almost all nominations for state and local office are made through direct primaries, these meetings seldom have a nominating task. More commonly, they exist to write a party platform, to handle official party business, and to provide a forum for campaign rallies. In a few states, preprimary conventions designate an official party choice for nomination, who may then be challenged in the primary. Conventions still designate statewide candidates directly in Delaware and Indiana. In some other states, most notably California and Wisconsin, unofficial party agencies hold their own conventions to select preferred candidates, whom they then endorse in the primary.

Other Countries
Although called by other names, party conventions are found in many countries. In Britain, for example, the annual party conference is an important sounding board for the party leaders, an occasion for revitalizing campaign energies, and a forum for the consideration of policy resolutions. Party candidates and leaders are nominated elsewhere-in their local constituencies and in the party caucus in the House of Commons. However, the annual conference resolutions considerably influence the leaders' policy and affect the voters' perception of the parties.
The party conferences in other countries often choose the executive committees, from which leaders of the government are likely to be drawn. If a party directly controls the government, its conventions are of great significance. The most important examples are the Communist nations. The most important decisions in the former Soviet Union were made at the party congresses, held about every five years, rather than in the formal legislative and executive bodies.
Gerald M. Pomper

Livingston College, Rutgers University
For Further Reading
Bain, Richard C., Convention Decisions and Voting Records (Brookings Institution 1973)
Bickel, Alexander Mordecai, Reform and Continuity: The Electoral College, the Convention and the Party System (Harper 1971)
David, Paul T., and others, The Politics of National Party Conventions, rev. ed. (Univ. Press of Am. 1984)
David, Paul T., Goldman, Ralph M., and Bain, Richard C., The Politics of National Party Conventions, rev. ed. (Vintage 1964)
Mailer, Norman, Some Honorable Men: Political Conventions, 1960-1972 (Little 1975)
National Party Conventions, 1831-1984 (Congressional Quarterly 1987)
Parris, Judith, The Convention Problem, Issues in Reform of Presidential Nominating Procedures (Brookings Institution 1973)
Shafer, Byron E., Bifurcated Politics: Evolution and Reform in the National Party Convention (Harvard Univ. Press 1988)